From Mouth to Muscles.

Y'Know...You're Hot

No, not that sort of "hot"...although, come to think of it...

You're hot - or maybe "warm" is more accurate - because whether you know it or not, every time you eat or drink, a number of systems in your body combine to act as an internal combustion engine and convert the chemical energy of what you consume into energy to sustain all bodily functions.

Assuming we eat three times a day; we all take over one thousand food related decisions a year. If we add two snacks a day in between our three main meals, this increases to eighteen hundred food related decisions.

That's a lot of decisions to take.

Understanding what our bodies need and how our bodies use the food we choose to eat and drink is a strong foundation for making the right nutritional choices to support our individual lifestyles.

A good place to start our understanding is with our digestive system...

From Mouth to Muscles...and Beyond

The human body digestive system breaks down food into substances for absorption into the bloodstream. This breakdown happens through mechanical digestion, y'know..teeth and chewing....and chemical digestion in the stomach and intestines[1]. The combined process is called catabolism[2].

Carbohydrates Proteins and Lipids

The food we eat contains a mixture of fats - also called lipids; proteins and carbohydrates and they need to be digested before they can be absorbed. Mechanical digestion involves physically breaking down these macronutrients into smaller particles to more efficiently undergo the subsequent chemical digestion. The role of chemical digestion is to further breakdown the molecular structure of the ingested compounds by digestive enzymes into a form that is absorbable into the bloodstream.

Impressive huh? Bet you didn't know you had the energy to do all that, after that whopping Sunday roast ?

Sit tight, it gets even better...

After food enters the stomach, the stomach muscles go to work on it and convert it into a liquid called “chyme”[3], which then moves through to the small intestine .

The small intestine is a hive of activity - it's like your favourite gym in full flurry, the first day after a boozy three-day holiday weekend....The muscles of the small intestine mix food with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, and intestine and the walls of the small intestine absorb water and the digested nutrients into the bloodstream. This process continues in the large intestine where the remaining nutrients are absorbed, and digestion is finalised.

The digested nutrients in the bloodstream are now mainly in the form glucose - derived from the carbohydrates, amino acids - from the protein and fatty acids, derived from the lipids.[4]

The blood carries these nutrients to the liver, where it stores, processes, and delivers nutrients via the bloodstream to the rest of the body when needed[5].

Y'Got Crazy Energy When You Exercise... Yeah

Ever wondered where your energy comes from? We're not talking about that Austin Powers "groovy energy" thing you've got going on, although it is rather fab....

We're talking about the energy you use in your workout or exercise .

Remember from the last section that by the time the nutrients from food are absorbed into the bloodstream they are in simple compound form; glucose, amino acids and fatty acids? The bloodstream carries these nutrients to cells throughout the body; with glucose being the most important one for energy.

Glycogen, Liver and Muscles

As our body's main source of energy is glucose[6], it makes sense that the body can store it for when needed and it does so in the form of glycogen.

Glycogen is stored mainly in the muscle and liver[7] and our muscles use it for energy when we’re physically active by converting it into a substance called adenosine triphosphate; ATP to us mere mortals[8].

What is ATP?

ATP is the body's 'energy currency' and is made in every cell in the body by the breakdown of glycogen. The body needs a continuous supply of ATP for energy, whether the energy is needed for lifting weights, walking, eating DuelFuel, thinking or even texting. It's also the unit of energy that fuels metabolism, the biochemical reactions that support and maintain life.

Our body uses three energy systems to keep cells supplied with necessary ATP to fuel our crazy-baby energy needs....yeah .

ATP-PC System

For short and intense movement lasting less than ten seconds, the body mainly uses the ATP-PC, or creatine phosphate system. This system is anaerobic, which means it does not use oxygen. The ATP-PC system utilizes the relatively small amount of ATP already stored in muscles for this immediate energy source. When the body's supply of ATP is depleted, which occurs in a matter of seconds, additional ATP is formed from the breakdown of phosphocreatine (PC), an energy compound found in in muscle.[9]

Lactic Acid System

The lactic acid system, also called the anaerobic glycolysis system, produces energy from glycogen stored in muscle and can do so with or without oxygen. When little or no oxygen is available, the series of reactions that transforms glucose into ATP causes lactic acid to be produced, in an effort to make more ATP. The lactic acid system fuels relatively short periods - a few minutes - of high-intensity muscle activity, but the accumulation of lactic acid can contribute to fatigue and a burning sensation in the muscles, so if you're " feeling the burn ", you'll know your lactic acid system is up and running well.

Aerobic System

This is the big one, as it provides most of the body's ATP.

The aerobic system produces ATP as energy is released from the breakdown of glucose and fatty acids. In the presence of oxygen, ATP can be formed through glycolysis. This system also involves the Krebs or tricarboxylic acid cycle - a series of chemical reactions that generate energy in the mitochondria - the power plant inside the body cells. The complexity of this system, along with the fact that it relies heavily on the circulatory system to supply oxygen, makes it slower to act compared to the ATP-PC or lactic acid systems. The aerobic system supplies energy for body movement lasting more than just a few minutes, such as long periods of work or endurance activities. This system also provides ATP to fuel most of the body's energy needs not related to physical activity, such as building and repairing body tissues, digesting food, controlling body temperature and growing hair.

The Three Systems Together

The three energy systems don't work independently or function in isolation of each other; all three are switched on at all times, but each may take a starring or backroom role at any time; depending on the type, intensity and duration of physical activity being done[10].

No Carbs Before Marbs?...Not If You Want to Perform.

There's no doubt about it, carbohydrates have had a bad press in recent times[11], but the fact is if we plan to do any form of exercise, carbohydrates can be a friend, not a foe[12].

Most forms of exercise involve activating muscles through contraction[13] and active muscles require a constant energy supply in the form of ATP, which is produced in part from glucose supplied by the bloodstream and from stored glycogen.

During exercise, ATP production in muscle is considerable. Even at rest, each muscle cell contains roughly 1 billion ATP molecules, all of which will be used and replaced every two minutes and during intense exercise this muscle ATP production can increase by a thousand times to meet the demands of intense muscle contraction.[14]

During exercise at levels greater than approximately 60% maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max)*, blood glucose and muscle glycogen are the main fuels used to produce the ATP required to sustain exercise, in large part because as exercise intensity increases, certain areas of the muscles are engaged which use carbohydrate as the predominant fuel source[15].

*VO2max measures the rate at which the heart, lungs, and muscles use oxygen during exercise and helps determine our individual aerobic capacity[16]

Carbohydrates and Performance

Over one hundred years ago the role carbohydrate played in performance during exercise started to be better understood; it became apparent that carbohydrate was a significant fuel source for exercising muscles[17], that there was a link between glucose levels and tiredness in marathon running[18] and increasing the amount of carbohydrate eaten before a marathon prevented weakness and fatigue[19].

This link between the carbohydrate content of the diet, muscle glycogen, and performance in exercise was confirmed in the 1960s when Scandinavian researchers established that muscle glycogen content had a major impact on endurance performance.[20] [21] [22] [23]

Carbohydrates Today

It is now widely accepted that having sufficient carbohydrates as part of a balanced diet and eating them before, during and after exercise can improve performance and recovery.[24] [25]

We also now know that beginning exercise with glycogen stores in our muscles topped-up contributes significantly to improved exercise performance and that replenishing glycogen stores is an important part of the process of recovering from exercise, which in turn helps maintain our capacity for subsequent exercise.[26] [27]

Exercise Done. Recovery Time.

What is muscle protein breakdown? Many of us have experienced that aching sensation a day or two after doing some form of physical activity. This is because many forms of exercise put a greater level of resistance on muscles than is experienced in a day-to-day routine. This additional resistance can cause damage to muscles and is called muscle protein breakdown[28], or MPB. It often causes micro tears in the muscles, which the body needs to repair.[29] [30].

What we therefore need after exercise is something to help muscles repair.

Muscle Protein Synthesis

Muscles repair through a process called muscle protein synthesis, MPS [31] [32] [33], whereby protein is used to repair muscle damage caused by exercise. It's the opposite force to MPB, in which protein is lost as a result of exercise.

MPS can be enhanced by eating food high in protein immediately following exercise. The amino acids that enter the bloodstream from digestion are transported to the muscles, replacing any lost to exercise.

How Much Protein To Consume After Exercise?

A number of studies have demonstrated and it is now widely believed that over twenty grams of protein is ideal for the body to consume after exercise to ensure optimal muscle protein synthesis[34] [35] [36] [37]. It is certainly a good target to aim for after exercise.

When to Eat Protein after Exercise?

Other studies suggest the rate of MPS in muscles is higher if protein is consumed sooner after exercise, rather than later[38] [39].

A Word About Leucine

If protein after exercise is a good way to support muscles as they recover, then protein and leucine after exercise is thought to be even better[40].

But...what is leucine?

Leucine is one of twenty amino acids which, when combined together, form proteins.

The body has the ability to make eleven of these amino acids; these are the "non-essential" amino acids you might have heard about. That leaves nine "essential" acids which the body needs but cannot produce itself and therefore must come from food. Leucine is one of these nine "essential" amino acids.

What Does Leucine Do?

Leucine helps kick-off the muscle building process by stimulating a signalling pathway - a series of chemical reactions where molecules work together to control a cell function, that results in muscle protein being created, thereby supporting muscle recovery.

How Much Leucine?

A number of studies have suggested a target of 0.7g - 3g of leucine per 20g protein is a suitable amount of leucine to support optimised MPS [41].

DuelFuel’s Vitamins & Minerals Mash-Up, De-Mashed…

Vitamins and minerals, also called micronutrients – or micros to the seriously informal, are normally required only in small amounts by the body, typically milligram [mg] or microgram [μg] amounts, although they are essential for a variety of physiological processes and functions [42].

All DuelFuel’s flapjacks, brownies and cake slices contain a blend of twenty-seven vitamins and minerals, to provide support before, during and after exercise. Our blend is consistent across all flapjacks, brownies and cake slices:

VITAMINS RI = Reference Intake



DUELPACK
FLAPJACK
CAKE SLICE
 
Per 100g %RI Per 75g %RI
Per 100g %RI Per 35g %RI
Per 100g %RI Per 40g %RI
Vitamin A µg
427 53 320 40
457 57 160 20
400 50 160 20
Vitamin D µg
2.7 53 2 40
2.9 57 1 20
3 60 1 20
Vitamin E mg
6.4 53 4.8 40
6.9 57 2.4 20
6 50 2.4 20
Vitamin K1 µg
40 53 30 40
43 57 15 20
38 50 15 20
Vitamin K2 µg
40 53 30 40
43 57 15 20
38 50 15 20
Vitamin C mg
53 67 40 50
57 71 20 25
50 63 20 25
Vitamin B1 Thiamin mg
0.7 67 0.55 50
0.8 71 0.28 25
0.7 63 0.28 25
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin mg
0.9 67 0.7 50
1.0 71 0.35 25
0.9 63 0.35 25
Vitamin B3 Niacin mg
11 67 8 50
11.4 71 4 25
10 63 4 25
Vitamin B6 mg
0.9 67 0.7 50
1.0 71 0.35 25
0.9 63 0.35 25
Folic Acid µg
133 67 100 50
143 71 50 25
125 63 50 25
Vitamin B12 µg
1.7 67 1.3 50
1.8 71 0.63 25
1.6 63 0.63 25
Biotin µg
33 67 25 50
36 71 12.5 25
31 63 12.5 25
Vitamin B5
4 67 3 50
4.3 71 1.5 25
3.8 63 1.5 25

MINERALS RI = Reference Intake



DUELPACK
FLAPJACK
CAKE SLICE
 
Per 100g %RI Per 75g %RI
Per 100g %RI Per 35g %RI
Per 100g %RI Per 40g %RI
Potassium mg
400 20 300 15
429 21 150 7.5
375 19 150 7.5
Chloride mg
363 45 272 34
389 49 136 17
340 43 136 17
Calcium mg
160 20 120 15
171 21 60 7.5
150 19 60 7.5
Phosphorus mg
140 20 105 15
150 21 53 7.5
131 19 53 7.5
Magnesium mg
75 20 56 15
80 21 28 7.5
70 19 28 7.5
Iron mg
5.6 40 4.2 30
6.0 43 2.1 15
5.3 38 2.1 15
Zinc mg
4.0 40 3 30
4.3 43 1.5 15
3.8 38 1.5 15
Copper mg
0.4 40 0.3 30
0.4 40 0.15 15
0.38 38 0.15 15
Manganese mg
0.8 40 0.6 30
0.9 43 0.3 15
0.75 30 0.3 15
Selenium µg
23 41 17 30
24 44 8.5 15
21 39 8.5 15
Chromium µg
16.0 40 12 30
17 43 6 15
15 38 6 15
Molybdenum µg
20.0 40 15 30
21 43 7.5 15
19 38 7.5 15
Iodine µg
60.0 40 45 30
64 43 23 15
56 38 23 15

Vitamins

Vitamin A

Vitamin A has a raft of benefits; it helps the immune system work properly, keeps our skin looking oh-so fresh and our noses clean. [43] Importantly it also helps with iron metabolism, the process of cell specialisation and aids healthy bone and teeth growth [44] …which is really important for those in-gym “deadlift grimaces”. Metabolism of iron is particularly beneficial in physical activity.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D supports absorption and utilisation of calcium and phosphorus [45] [46] , contributes to normal blood calcium levels [47] , maintenance of normal muscle function and has a role in the process of cell division [48] , all of which are kinda important if you want to go throwing heavy weights around in the gym.

Vitamin E

This one helps the protection of cells from oxidative stress [49] . “What does oxidative stress do?”, we hear you ask. It can cause inflammation, which in turn puts pressure on the immune system [50] . Inflammation and exercise?....Not good workout partners; we don’t want that.

Vitamin K1 & K2

Nope, these twins won’t support you in climbing the world’s second highest mountain [51] but they do contribute to normal blood clotting and the maintenance of bones [52] , which you’re going to need if you want to stand tall and proud when you nail your next PB.

Vitamin C

The big one. Vit. C does a lot to support us; it contributes the normal function of the immune system during and after intense physical exercise [53] , it also contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal function of blood vessels, bones and cartilage, normal energy-yielding metabolism, normal functioning of the nervous system and normal psychological function, protection of cells from oxidative stress, reduction of tiredness and fatigue and, as if that wasn’t enough…it also increases iron absorption [54] .

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

Got a favourite vitamin yet? B1 is a good’un. Look what it does… it contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism, functioning of the nervous system, normal psychological function & normal function of the heart [55] [56] . Mind and body strong, Grasshopper.

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

B2 most definitely is not the poor twin to B1. Have a gander at this; it contributes to the maintenance of normal red blood cells, normal metabolism of iron, the protection of cells from oxidative stress and reduction of tiredness and fatigue [57] .

Vitamin B3 (Niacin)

B3 cosies up nicely to its cousin B2 and contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism, normal functioning of the nervous system, normal psychological function and the reduction of tiredness and fatigue [58] [59]. B2, B3…be free!

Vitamin B6

Busy-boy, this one. It contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism, normal functioning of the nervous system, normal psychological function, red blood cell formation, reduction of tiredness and fatigue and protein and glycogen metabolism [60] [61] . Our pieces on glycogen and protein, will tell you a little more about how beneficial they are and how they are metabolised during and after exercise.

Folic Acid

Folic acid is a good friend to protein and contributes to normal amino acid synthesis [62].. It also contributes to normal blood formation, normal psychological function, normal function of the immune system, reduction of tiredness and fatigue (again with the tiredness…) and has a supporting role in the process of cell division [63].

Vitamin B12

Another busy fella, vying for the top-dog slot. B12 contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism, normal functioning of the nervous system, normal psychological function, red blood cell formation, normal function of the immune system, reduction of tiredness and fatigue and also comes on stage from time to time to support the process of cell division [64] [65] .

Biotin

Biotin contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism, normal functioning of the nervous system and macronutrient metabolism [66][67], which is key to how we perform during and after our workout or exercise.

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)

…and closing the vitamins show tonight ladies and gentlemen is B5, which contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism, normal mental performance, normal synthesis and metabolism of steroid hormones, vitamin D and some neurotransmitters and the reduction of tiredness and fatigue. Way to go…B5.

Minerals

Potassium

Potassium kicks off the minerals show, with a contribution towards normal functioning of the nervous system, muscle function and maintenance of normal blood pressure [68].

Chloride

This sharp little dude contributes to normal digestion by production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach [69], which plays an integral role in breaking down the food we eat into simple compounds for transportation around the body by the bloodstream.

Calcium

Calcium chalks-up quite a few functions in the gym; not only does it antagonize every gym-owner that has ever put out a chalk bucket, it also contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism, normal muscle function, neurotransmission, function of digestive enzymes and the process of cell division and specialisation [70][71].

Phosphorous

This one burns bright in the list by contributing to normal energy-yielding metabolism and the normal function of cell membranes [72].

Magnesium

Magnesium doesn’t just sparkle a bright white colour in a Bunsen burner at school, it also stars brightly in our minerals list by contributing to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue, contributing to electrolyte balance, normal energy-yielding metabolism, normal functioning of the nervous system, normal muscle function, normal protein synthesis, normal psychological function and has a role in the process of cell division [73][74].

Iron

Iron contributes to normal cognitive function, normal energy yielding metabolism, formation of red blood cells and haemoglobin, normal oxygen transport in the body, normal function of the immune system, reduction of tiredness and fatigue and has a role in the process of cell division [75][76]. Tony Stark would be proud.

Zinc

Don’t hold your breath whilst you read this one, we don’t want you passing out….because zinc contributes to normal DNA synthesis, normal acid-base metabolism, normal carbohydrate metabolism, normal cognitive function, normal macronutrient metabolism, normal metabolism of fatty acids, normal metabolism of vitamin A, normal protein synthesis, maintenance of normal testosterone levels in the blood, normal function of the immune system, protection of cells from oxidative stress and…zinc has a role in the process of cell division [77][78].

Copper

“Awlright copper…I’ll come quietly…” This crime-busting super-hero does a great job of contributing to maintenance of normal connective tissues, contributing to normal energy-yielding metabolism, normal functioning of the nervous system, normal iron transport in the body (and we know just how important iron is, don’t we?) and the protection of cells from oxidative stress [79].

Manganese

Nowhere near as swanky as its almost namesake. Nevertheless, Manganese does a fair bit for us and contributes to normal energy-yielding metabolism, normal formation of connective tissue and protection of cells from oxidative stress. It also burns yellow-green in a Bunsen…

Selenium

Normal function of the immune system, thyroid function and protection of cells from oxidative stress; that’s what ol’ Selenium does [80].

Chromium

We’re talking a contribution to normal macronutrient metabolism and maintenance of normal blood glucose levels [81]. Both really important if we’re looking to go full-on beast mode in the gym.

Molybdenum

Molybdenum contributes to normal sulphur amino acid metabolism[82][83]. Yawn.

Iodine

…and last, but not least…Iodine does a grand job of contributing to normal cognitive function, normal energy-yielding metabolism, normal functioning of the nervous system and the normal production of thyroid hormones and normal thyroid function [84][85].

References

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[41]   Jäger, R., Kerksick, C.M., Campbell, B.I. et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 14, 20 (2017).

[42] https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/what-are-reference-intakes-on-food-labels/ https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/what-are-reference-intakes-on-food-labels/

[43]  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/vitamin-a/ https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/vitamin-a/

[44] https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1221 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1221

[45] https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/vitamin-d/ https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/vitamin-d/

[46] https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1227 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1227

[47] https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/2203 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/2203

[48] https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1468 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1468

[49] https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1816 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1468

[50] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5551541/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5551541/

[51] K2 mountain, Asia Alternate titles: Chogori, Dapsang, Mount Godwin Austen, Qogir Feng https://www.britannica.com/place/K2

[52] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to vitamin K and maintenance of bone (ID 123, 127, 128, and 2879), blood coagulation (ID 124 and 126), and function of the heart and blood vessels (ID 124, 125 and 2880) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1228

[53]https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1226

[54]Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to vitamin C and reduction of tiredness and fatigue (ID 139, 2622), contribution to normal psychological functions (ID 140), regeneration of the reduced form of vitamin E (ID 202), contribution to normal energy-yielding metabolism (ID 2334, 3196), maintenance of the normal function of the immune system (ID 4321) and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage (ID 3331) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1815

[55]Scientific Opinion on substantiation of health claims related to thiamine and energy-yielding metabolism (ID 21, 24, 28), cardiac function (ID 20), function of the nervous system (ID 22, 27), maintenance of bone (ID 25), maintenance of teeth (ID 25), maintenance of hair (ID 25), maintenance of nails (ID 25), maintenance of skin (ID 25) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1222

[56]Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to thiamin and reduction of tiredness and fatigue (ID 23) and contribution to normal psychological functions (ID 205) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1755

[57]Riboflavin related health claims | EFSA https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1814

[58] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to niacin and energy-yielding metabolismhttps://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1224

[59] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to niacin and reduction of tiredness and fatiguehttps://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1757

[60] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to vitamin B6 and contribution to normal homocysteine metabolismhttps://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1759

References 61-80

[61] https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1225 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1225

[62] https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1760 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1760

[63] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to folate and blood formation (ID 79), homocysteine metabolism (ID 80), energy-yielding metabolism (ID 90), function of the immune system (ID 91), function of blood vessels (ID 94, 175, 192), cell division (ID 193), and maternal tissue growth during pregnancy (ID 2882) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1213

[64] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to vitamin B12 and red blood cell formation https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1223

[65] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to vitamin B12 and contribution to normal neurological and psychological functions https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1756

[66] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to biotin and energy-yielding metabolism https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1209

[67] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to biotin and maintenance of normal skin and mucous membranes https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1728

[68] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to potassium and maintenance of normal muscular and neurological function https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1469

[69] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to chloride as Na-, K-, Ca-, or Mg-salt and contribution to normal digestion by production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1764

[70] cientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to calcium and maintenance of bones and teeth https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1210

[71] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to calcium and maintenance of normal bone and teeth https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1725

[72] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to phosphorus and function of cell membranes https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1219

[73] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to magnesium and electrolyte balance (ID 238), energy-yielding metabolism https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1216

[74] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to magnesium and “hormonal health” (ID 243), reduction of tiredness and fatigue (ID 244) https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1807

[75] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to iron and formation of red blood cells and haemoglobin (ID 374, 2889), oxygen transport (ID 255), contribution to normal energy-yielding metabolism (ID 255), reduction of tiredness and fatigue (ID 255, 374, 2889), biotransformation of xenobiotic substances (ID 258), and “activity of heart, liver and muscles” (ID 397) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1740

[76] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to iron and formation of red blood cells and haemoglobin (ID 249, ID 1589), oxygen transport (ID 250, ID 254, ID 256), energy-yielding metabolism (ID 251, ID 1589), function of the immune system (ID 252, ID 259), cognitive function (ID 253) and cell division (ID 368) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1215

[77] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to zinc and maintenance of normal skin (ID 293), DNA synthesis and cell division (ID 293), contribution to normal protein synthesis (ID 293, 4293), maintenance of normal serum testosterone concentrations (ID 301), “normal growth” (ID 303), reduction of tiredness and fatigue (ID 304), contribution to normal carbohydrate metabolism (ID 382), maintenance of normal hair (ID 412), maintenance of normal nails (ID 412) and contribution to normal macronutrient metabolism (ID 2890) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1819

[78] Zinc related health claims | EFSA https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1229

[79] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to copper and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage (ID 263, 1726) https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1211

[80] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to selenium and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1220

references 81+

[81] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to chromium and contribution to normal macronutrient metabolism https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1732

[82] The sulfur-containing amino acids: an overview, John T Brosnan, Margaret E Brosnan https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16702333/

[83] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to molybdenum and contribution to normal amino acid metabolism (ID 313) and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage (ID 341) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1745

[84] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to iodine and thyroid function and production of thyroid hormones (ID 274), energy-yielding metabolism (ID 274), maintenance of vision (ID 356), maintenance of hair (ID 370), maintenance of nails (ID 370), and maintenance of skin (ID 370) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1214

[85] Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to iodine and contribution to normal cognitive and neurological function (ID 273), contribution to normal energy-yielding metabolism (ID 402), and contribution to normal thyroid function and production of thyroid hormones (ID 1237) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1800

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